Research Abstracts on Nonverbal Communication

 

Nonverbal Communication Abstracts

1. Martin, L. R. & Friedman, H. S. (2004).  Nonverbal communication and health care. In R.E. Riggio & R. S. Feldman (Eds.), Applications of Nonverbal Communication. NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Abstract: Nonverbal communication – the use of dynamic but non-language messages such as facial expressions, gestures, gaze, touch, and vocal cues -- is especially important when emotions, identities, and status roles are significant, as well as in situations where verbal communications are untrustworthy, ambiguous, or otherwise difficult to interpret.  The importance of nonverbal cues is thus central in the health arena.

2. Friedman, H. S. & Riggio, R. E. (1999). Individual differences in the ability to encode complex emotions. Personality and Individual Differences, 27, 181-194.

Abstract: Based on past theory and research, three complex affective communications, sympathy (compassion), pride and seduction, were selected for the focused study. 62 undergraduates (mean age 20.6 yrs) were measured on relevant personality variables and videotaped while attempting to encode basic emotional expressions and the three complex effects. Groups of raters rated the success of each attempted portrayal. Other raters judged the facial expressions employed. Analyses revealed the characteristics of successful senders and the errors made by unsuccessful communicators. Significant positive intercorrelations between Subjects' abilities to encode each complex effect and correlations between encoding complex and basic emotional messages suggested that there may be a general ability to express affection. Correlations between the personality measures and encoding ability showed that dominant and exhibitionistic Subjects and emotionally expressive female Subjects, and male Subjects who were good 'social actors' were better encoders of complex effects. These results have implications for understanding the emotional subtleties of social life and the differential social success of various individuals.

3. DePaulo, BM & Friedman, H.S. (1997). Nonverbal Communication. In D. Gilbert, S. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (eds.) Handbook of Social Psychology, 4th edition.

Abstract: To fully understand the role of nonverbal communication in social psychology, it is important to analyze the perception and expression sides and then examine social factors that can undermine veridicality--self-perception and the interpersonal process of deception. Finally, the analysis must be taken to more complex levels of dynamic interaction and mutuality involving social influence, attraction, interpersonal expectations and conversations. This is, therefore, the outline followed in this chapter... After discussing the roots of nonverbal research, this chapter discusses nonverbal cues in person perception; expressiveness and personal charisma; self-presentation; deception; social influence; attraction; expectancy communication; and conversation.

4. Tucker, Joan S.; Friedman, Howard S. Sex differences in nonverbal expressiveness: Emotional expression, personality, and impressions. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 1993 Summer, v17 (n2):103-117.

Abstract: Administered a comprehensive set of emotion-relevant personality measures to 40 female and 39 male undergraduates, who were also videotaped in 3 situations. The situations included engaging in natural social interaction, describing a past emotional experience, and posing various emotions. Videotapes were judged by naive observers as to the emotion communicated and overall impression. Expressive females, who appeared friendly and dominant in social interaction, were found to have a hostile/aggressive personality. Expressive females also tended to look angry/disgusted when describing happy and sad experiences. Findings suggest that nonverbally skilled, charismatic women may often possess a dominant/aggressive but self-controlled personality, in a new twist on the theory that sex differences in expressiveness result in part from the oppression of women in society.

5. Friedman, Howard S.; Miller-Herringer, Terry. Nonverbal display of emotion in public and private: Self-monitoring, personality, and expressive cues. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 1992 Nov, v61 (n5):766-775.

Abstract: Individual differences in the expression and regulation of emotion are important components of social skills. The present study focused on concealing spontaneous expressions of happiness after winning in a competitive situation against peers. In a repeated measures design, spontaneous expressive behaviours in response to triumph were secretly videotaped when Subjects ( N = 38) were alone in a room and with 2 fellow competitors (confederates). Edited tapes were analyzed by naive raters and trained coders. As predicted, the social context strongly influenced the expressive behaviours of Subjects, providing support for a social inhibition effect. More importantly, the self-monitoring construct (M. Snyder, 1987) helped explain individual differences in expressive regulation, with high self-monitors successfully hiding their happiness when appropriate; they did so in particular ways. Low self-monitors did not conceal their emotions. Other findings about personality and sex differences were also uncovered.

BOOK CHAPTER

5. Friedman, Howard S.; Tucker, Joan S. Language and deception. In: Handbook of language and social psychology.; Howard Giles, W. Peter Robinson, Eds. John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, England. 1990. p. 257-270.

Abstract: (from the chapter) It is useful to think of deception as part of a constantly negotiated social reality; deception involves an actor who has various feelings, motivations, expressions, and styles that affect the behavioural cues that he or she gives off to a perceiver; the perceiver, in turn, uses various perceptual and cognitive processes to draw inferences about the actor and responds to the actor based on these inferences; as the perceiver's responses feedback to the actor, the cycle of communication and reality negotiation continues... accuracy levels; perceived and actual cues to deception; a model of deception; a skills approach to understanding the deception process.

6. Friedman, Howard S.; Riggio, Ronald E.; Casella, Daniel F. Nonverbal skill, personal charisma, and initial attraction. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 1988 Mar, v14 (n1):203-211.

Abstract: Administered measures of nonverbal expressiveness, self-monitoring, and extraversion, including the Eysenck Personality Inventory, to 54 undergraduates. Subjects were surreptitiously videotaped while entering a laboratory and meeting new people and were rated by a group of 30 undergraduates on the likability and physical attractiveness scales. Results indicate that emotionally expressive, extraverted, and physically attractive Subjects were evaluated more favourably in these initial encounters than were Subjects scoring low on these dimensions. The relationships between expressivity/extraversion and initial likability were independent of the effects of physical attractiveness. Results suggest that conceptions of overall attractiveness must move beyond the physical qualities to include dynamic and emotional aspects.

7. Riggio, Ronald E.; Friedman, Howard S. Impression formation: The role of expressive behaviour. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 1986 Feb, v50 (n2):421-427.

Abstract: 35 female and 27 male undergraduates completed the Personality Research Form, Eysenck Personality Inventory, and Self-Monitoring Scale. Subjects were also assessed on posed emotional sending ability and physical attractiveness. Subjects were then videotaped while giving a spontaneous "explanation." Trained coders measured 5 different nonverbal cue factors displayed by the Subjects in the videotapes. Groups of untrained judges viewed the tapes and rated their impressions of the Subjects on likability, speaking effectiveness, and expressivity-confidence scales. Males who were nonverbally skilled and extraverted tended to display more outwardly focused and fluid, expressive behaviours and made more favourable impressions on judges than males who scored low on nonverbal skills and extraversion. Nonverbally skilled females displayed more facial expressiveness, which led to more favourable initial impressions. It is suggested that these sex differences may reflect basic differences in the acquisition and use of expressive nonverbal cues by males and females.

8. Sullins, Ellen S.; Friedman, Howard S.; Harris, Monica J. Individual differences in expressive style as a mediator of expectancy communication. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 1985 Winter, v9 (n4):229-238.

Abstract: Examined the role of nonverbal expressiveness and self-monitoring as mediators in communicating teachers' expectations for student performance to a 3rd party observer. 32 female undergraduates were recruited to be videotaped while teaching a brief lesson to a high school student who was presented as either very bright and motivated or not. Videotapes showing only the teacher were later shown to undergraduate observers who were asked for their impressions of the student being taught. It was hypothesized that nonverbally expressive teachers would communicate their expectations to the observers and elicit responses similar to their own. On the other hand, unexpressive teachers would not communicate their expectations, eliciting observer responses unrelated to their own. The predictions were supported; however, it was found that spontaneous expressiveness interacted with self-monitoring in determining expectancy communication.

9. Riggio, Ronald E.; Widaman, Keith F.; Friedman, Howard S. Actual and perceived emotional sending and personality correlates. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 1985 Summer, v9 (n2):69-83.

Abstract: Investigated the relationship between 68 undergraduates' ability to facially express 6 basic emotions and their perceived success at expressing these emotions. Subjects completed several standardized personality scales and were videotaped while attempting to portray their emotions. Immediately following the videotaping, Subjects rated their perceived success in the emotional-sending task. 69 undergraduate observers then judged the emotional-sending videotapes to determine the Subjects' actual sending abilities. Analysis indicated that actual and perceived emotional sending were distinct factors. Zero-order correlations between the traditional personality measures and the actual and perceived sending factors supported this distinction. Findings have important implications for constructing standardized measures of differences in nonverbal communication skills.

10. Friedman, Howard S.; Hall, Judith A.; Harris, Monica J. Type A behaviour, nonverbal expressive style, and health. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 1985 May, v48 (n5):1299-1315.

Abstract: 60 42-64 yr old males at high risk for coronary heart disease were examined regarding their expressive style, specific nonverbal cues, personality, and health. As assessed by the Jenkins Activity Survey, half the Subjects were Type A's (coronary-prone), and half were Type B's (non-coronary-prone). To provide a more refined grouping, Subjects were further classified based on scores on a self-report measure of nonverbal expressiveness. Videotapes of the Subjects were extensively rated and coded regarding their judged appearance, the actual audio and video nonverbal cues emitted, and the words said (transcript). Two groups of Type A's were found: one that was repressed, tense, and illness-prone, and another that was healthy, talkative, in control, and charismatic.

Furthermore, in addition to the expected healthy Type B's, a subgroup of Type B's was found who were submissive, repressed, and tense; had an external locus of control; and may have been illness prone. A refined conception of the Type A behaviour pattern is necessary in light of these findings. Implications for improving the validity of the Type A construct and understanding the link between psychosocial factors and disease are discussed.

11. Riggio, Ronald E.; Friedman, Howard S. Individual differences and cues to deception. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 1983 Oct, v45 (n4):899-915.

Abstract: In an extension of previous studies on deception and deception detection, the present study investigated the relations among individual differences, behavioural cues displayed when deceiving and telling the truth, and the perceptions of naive observers. 63 undergraduates were measured on the Self-Monitoring Scale, the Affective Communication Test, the Personality Research Form, the Eysenck Personality Inventory, their acting ability, and their overall appearance. They were then videotaped while deceiving and telling the truth, and their verbal and nonverbal cues were rated and coded. Their success at creating a natural appearance was assessed by showing edited videotapes of their faces or bodies to naive judges (176 undergraduates), with and without sound. Behavioural cues validly discriminated truthfulness from deception, but these valid cues were not necessarily used or were incorrectly used by the judges. Comparison of the facial and body conditions suggested explanations for the relative inaccuracy of face-viewing judges. Individual differences were related to the overall display of behavioural cues, to variance in the display of cues from deceptive to truthful conditions, to overall perceptions of truthfulness, and to successful deception.

12. Riggio, Ronald E.; Friedman, Howard S. The interrelationships of self-monitoring factors, personality traits, and nonverbal social skills. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 1982 Fall, v7 (n1):33-45.

Abstract: Examined the interrelationships of several standardized nonverbal skills and personality measures in 2 studies. In Study 1, 68 undergraduates took the Personality Research Form--Form A, the ACT Assessment, the Eysenck Personality Inventory, and a self-monitoring scale; Subjects also participated in a videotaped attempt to send each of 6 possible emotions. Subjects were then asked to describe pictures by lying or telling the truth. In Study 2, 82 undergraduates took the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale, the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale, the Rotter Internal-External Locus of Control Scale, the ACT Assessment, a self-esteem inventory, a sensitivity to nonverbal communications test, and a self-monitoring scale. The self-monitoring factor of Acting was positively correlated with aggression, dominance, exhibition, and Machiavellianism. The self-monitoring factor Other-Directedness was positively related to social recognition, neuroticism, Machiavellianism, and manifest anxiety; and negatively related to self-esteem, social desirability, achievement and endurance. Self-monitoring measures the ability to send emotional displays and knowledge of social rules and social sensitivity.

13. Friedman, Howard S.; Riggio, Ronald E. Effect of individual differences in nonverbal expressiveness on the transmission of emotion. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 1981 Winter, v6 (n2):96-104.

Abstract: Tested the possibility that individual differences in nonverbal expressiveness may function as a mediating factor in the transmission of emotion through social comparison. In a quasiexperimental design involving 27 highly expressive undergraduates and 54 unexpressive undergraduates (as measured by the Affective Communication Test), small groups consisting of 1 expressive Subject and 2 unexpressive Subjects were created in which the Subjects sat facing each other without talking for 2 min. Self-report measures of mood indicated that the feelings of unexpressive Subjects were influenced by expressive Subjects. Still, the feelings of expressive Subjects were relatively unlikely to be influenced by unexpressive Subjects. Findings have implications for the role of nonverbal communication in the emotional side of group interaction.

14. Riggio, Ronald E.; Friedman, Howard S.; DiMatteo, M. Robin. Nonverbal greetings: Effects of the situation and personality. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 1981 Dec, v7 (n4):682-689.

Abstract: Investigated the effects of various situational and personality variables on the display of nonverbal greetings. 30 female and 23 male graduates and undergraduates served as Subjects. Five other females and 5 other males served as confederates. The sex of the greeting interactants, the level of acquaintanceship, and the topic to be discussed were systematically varied in several role-played greeting situations. 49 observers then rated these role-played greetings in terms of intimacy and the type of greeting displayed. Greetings between role-played friends were judged more intimate than greetings between acquaintances. In addition, Subjects who scored higher on standardized measures of nonverbal skills were more intimate overall in their greeting displays.

15. Friedman, Howard S.; Riggio, Ronald E.; Segall, Daniel O. Personality and the enactment of emotion. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 1980 Fall, v5 (n1):35-48.

Abstract: Investigated the meaning of personality traits for social interaction by exploring the personality correlates of abilities to pose emotions. This framework focuses on individual differences in socioemotional skills. 31 male and 37 female undergraduates were videotaped while attempting to communicate 7 basic emotions nonverbally (i.e., using standard content communications), and sending success was measured by showing edited videotapes to judges. Hypothesized relationships between "acting" ability and scores on the Personality Research Form and the Eysenck Personality Inventory were examined. Findings have implications for predicting individual strengths and weaknesses in social interaction as a function of certain personality traits and for understanding a person's perception.

16.  Friedman, Howard S.; DiMatteo, M. Robin; Mertz, Timothy I. Nonverbal communication on television news: The facial expressions of broadcasters during coverage of a presidential election campaign. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 1980 Sep, v6 (n3):427-435.

Abstract: Examined the facial expressions of 5 network TV news anchorpersons during their coverage of the 1976 presidential election campaign. The possibility for systematic yet subtle nonverbal communication in the news was explored through a "nonverbal content analysis" in which the facial expressions accompanying the uttering of the candidates' names were studied. Significant differences were found in the perceived positiveness of the facial expressions of broadcasters as a function of the candidates.

17. Friedman, Howard S.; Prince, Louise M.; Riggio, Ronald E.; DiMatteo, M. Robin. Understanding and assessing nonverbal expressiveness: The Affective Communication Test. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 1980 Aug, v39 (n2):333-351.

Abstract: 577 undergraduates participated in an investigation of the concept of nonverbal emotional expressiveness. Subjects were administered a 13-item self-report Affective Communication Test (ACT) and a battery of other tests, including the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale, Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale, Rotter's Internal-External Locus of Control Scale, and Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory. Results show the ACT to be a reliable and valid measure of individual differences in expressiveness/charisma, which is (a) a likely element of social influence in face-to-face interaction, (b) a logical extension of past approaches to a basic element of personality (exhibition), and (c) a valuable construct in approaching current problems in nonverbal communication research.

18. DiMatteo, M. Robin; Friedman, Howard S.; Taranta, Angelo. Sensitivity to bodily nonverbal communication as a factor in practitioner-patient rapport. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 1979 Fall, v4 (n1):18-26.

Abstract: Tested the relationship between physicians' nonverbal sensitivity and the satisfaction of their patients. In Exp I, 40 physicians were given a film test of nonverbal sensitivity (Profile of Nonverbal Sensitivity) and evaluated by their patients. Exp II was a replication using 31 different physicians. Most noteworthy for research in therapeutic interaction, the present study contained 3 methodological advances: (1) the use of actual patients' ratings of satisfaction with treatment, (2) the extension of research from psychological to medical settings, and (3) the use of a standardized test of nonverbal decoding skill. Physicians' skill at reading the emotion conveyed through the nonverbal channel of body movement was significantly correlated with their interpersonal success with patients in the clinical setting.

19. Friedman, Howard S. The interactive effects of facial expressions of emotion and verbal messages on perceptions of affective meaning. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 1979 Sep, v15 (n5):453-469.

Abstract: The influence of facial expressions of emotion on perceptions of affective sentence meaning was investigated by pairing the happy, angry, surprised, and sad faces of "teachers" with sentences of varying affective tones. 95 high school students judged the overall meaning communicated by these paired stimuli. The design allowed the exploration of unique facial-verbal combination effects, overall cue integration effects, and sex differences. Clear effects of cue combinations emerged. Perceived sincerity was a function of evaluative (positivity) consistency but not dominance cues. The subtleties of cue combinations were clarified through open-ended dependent measures. Also, as expected, females were more sensitive than males to verbal-nonverbal cue conflict in perceptions of sincerity. Findings are discussed with the need for a firm empirical base to integrate verbal and nonverbal research traditions to communicate affective meaning.

20. Friedman, Howard S. The relative strength of verbal versus nonverbal cues. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 1978 Winter, v4 (n1):147-150.

Abstract: A caveat is issued regarding simplistic comparisons of verbal and nonverbal cues' potency. To illustrate the danger, data are reported from a study in which 95 high school students judged the meaning communicated by various face-sentence pairings. Results show that judgments were highly dependent on the questions' nature. On a global positivity question, the nonverbal cues (i.e., facial expressions) had a greater impact than the words.

21. Ellsworth, Phoebe C.; Friedman, Howard S.; Perlick, Deborah; Hoyt, Michael E. Some effects of gaze on subjects motivated to seek or to avoid social comparison. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 1978 Jan, v14 (n1):69-87.

Abstract: In a conceptual replication and extension of I. Sarnoff and P. G. Zimbardo's (see PA, Vol 36:4HK56S) study, 88 female undergraduates were motivated to seek (fear arousal) or avoid (embarrassment arousal) social comparison. They were then required to affiliate with another person who either encouraged social comparison by gazing directly at the Subjects or discouraged it by averting his or her gaze. This other person was either an appropriate reference person (similar state) or irrelevant for social comparison purposes. As predicted, fearful Subjects liked a companion who looked at them and felt less tense in his or her presence, while embarrassed Subjects preferred the person who looked away. This interaction occurred only in the appropriate reference person condition, a result consistent with an explanation based on social comparison processes.

22. Friedman, H.S.  (2001). Paradoxes of Nonverbal Detection, Expression, and Responding:  Points to PONDER.  In J.A. Hall & F. J. Bernieri (eds.), Interpersonal Sensitivity:  Theory and Measurement. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum,  pp. 351-362.

Abstract: Ponder several puzzling paradoxes of interpersonal sensitivity.  Much important interpersonal knowledge is rapidly communicated in various situations, mostly nonverbally.  Yet we usually need to understand how this occurs.  On the other hand, there is a great deal of misinformation and misunderstanding in face-to-face human relations.  Here too, we often need help deciphering precisely what is going wrong. Such matters undoubtedly involve the sounds, gestures, touches, odours, and faces of spreading emotion.  They are fertile grounds for the future study of nonverbal sensitivity in particular and interpersonal sensitivity in general.