Functions of Nonverbal Communication

A. Creating and maintaining relationships

Nonverbal cues play a crucial role in creating and maintaining relationships. For example, research by Mehrabian (1971) found that 55% of communication is conveyed through body language, making it essential for interpreting emotions and intentions in relationships. In the early stages of a relationship, people often observe their potential partner's body language, facial expressions, and eye contact to gauge interest and trustworthiness. In established relationships, maintaining eye contact, leaning in during conversations, and engaging in affectionate touch are clear signs of relational satisfaction and help strengthen the bond between people, as demonstrated in a study by Burleson (1994).

B. Regulators

Regulators are nonverbal cues that control the flow of verbal interaction. Research by Goffman (1967) highlights the importance of these cues in conversational turn-taking. For example, using hand gestures or head nods to signal that a person has finished speaking and it's the listener's turn to talk can prevent interruptions and maintain a smooth flow of conversation. Another example is raising a hand to interrupt a conversation or looking away from a speaker to signal disinterest or disagreement, allowing individuals to manage the direction and content of the discussion.

C. Influencing others with nonverbal behaviour

1. Capture attention: People can use nonverbal cues like waving, making eye contact, or using gestures to capture the attention of others. Moore (1985) found that people who use attention-getting nonverbal cues are more likely to be approached in social settings.

2. Show or increase liking: Smiling, maintaining eye contact, and mirroring another person's body language can demonstrate liking and build rapport, as suggested in studies by Rosenthal (1966).

3. Generate power: Standing tall, maintaining steady eye contact, and using expansive gestures can convey power and authority. Cuddy (2010) showed that adopting powerful nonverbal postures can also boost confidence and positively influence performance.

4. Boost credibility: Speaking clearly, maintaining appropriate eye contact, and using confident gestures can enhance one's credibility and trustworthiness, according to Mehrabian (1971).

D. Concealing/deceiving

1. Most messages exchanged need to be more truthful, as people often exaggerate or downplay certain aspects of their experiences, as DePaulo (1996) noted.

2. Detecting deception is challenging due to factors like individual differences in lying and cultural variations in communication styles, as highlighted by Ekman (2003).

3. Liars may exhibit more speech disturbances (e.g., "um" or "uh"), pause longer, and have dilated pupils, as demonstrated in studies by Vrij (2008).

4. True feelings can be revealed through brief, unconscious microexpressions, such as a flash of anger or fear, as discovered by Ekman (1985).

5. It's essential not to jump to conclusions when assessing honesty, as misinterpreting cues can lead to false accusations or damaged relationships, as cautioned by O'Sullivan (2008).

E. Managing impressions

1.   Manner: The way we act or behave can impact how others perceive us. Goffman's (1959) research on impression management highlights that maintaining a polite and respectful demeanour can create a positive impression while being rude or dismissive can create a negative one.

2. Appearance: Dressing professionally and grooming oneself well can enhance credibility and authority, as Murphy (2007) demonstrated on the impact of clothing on perceptions. Artefacts such as jewellery, glasses, or tattoos can also convey information about our identity.

3. Setting: The physical items we surround ourselves with can influence perceptions. Gosling's (2002) research on personal spaces and belongings illustrates that a tidy, organized office can create an impression of competence and reliability, while a messy, cluttered workspace can suggest disorganization and irresponsibility. In his studies, participants accurately inferred aspects of the occupants' personalities based on the appearance of their living or working spaces.

1. Reinforcing verbal communication: Nonverbal cues can complement and reinforce verbal messages, making them more effective and memorable. For example, teachers may use gestures, facial expressions, or visual aids to emphasize essential points during a lecture (Witt, Wheeless, & Allen, 2004).
2. Regulating interactions: Nonverbal cues help manage the flow of conversation, ensuring smooth communication. In classrooms, teachers can use eye contact or hand gestures to signal when it's time for students to speak, ask questions, or provide feedback (Gesteland, 2012).
3. Establishing rapport and a positive learning environment: Positive nonverbal behaviours, such as smiling, nodding, and maintaining eye contact, can create a supportive and engaging learning environment, increasing students' motivation and participation (Teven & McCroskey, 1997).
4. Expressing emotions: Nonverbal cues allow teachers and students to convey emotions and attitudes that may not be adequately expressed through words. For example, a teacher's enthusiastic tone, facial expressions, and body language can inspire students and convey a passion for the subject matter (Riggio, 1992).
5. Providing feedback: Teachers can use nonverbal cues, such as nodding or giving a thumbs-up, to indicate understanding, agreement, or appreciation for students' contributions. Conversely, puzzled facial expressions or a raised eyebrow can signal confusion or doubt, prompting students to clarify or elaborate on their ideas (Vrij, 2008).
6. Signalling status and roles: Nonverbal cues can indicate an individual's position or role within a group. For instance, a teacher's attire, posture, and spatial organization in the classroom can communicate authority and professionalism (Hall, Coats, & LeBeau, 2005).
7. Providing structure and organization: Nonverbal cues can help teachers create an organized and structured learning environment. For example, using visual aids such as diagrams, charts, or PowerPoint presentations can clarify complex concepts and guide students through the learning process (Mayer, 2001).
8. Facilitating transitions: Teachers can use nonverbal signals to manage classroom transitions, such as moving from one activity to another or signalling the end of a break. These cues can include body movements, changes in vocal pitch or volume, or using a timer to signal when it's time to change activities (McCaslin & Good, 1996).
9. Encouraging active learning: Nonverbal communication can promote active learning by engaging students in the educational process. For instance, teachers can encourage students to demonstrate their understanding through role-play, physical activities, or hands-on experiments involving various nonverbal cues and behaviours (Bonwell & Eison, 1991).
10. Monitoring and assessing student understanding: Teachers can use nonverbal cues to gauge students' comprehension of the material, identify confusion or disengagement, and adjust their teaching strategies accordingly. For example, observing students' facial expressions, body language, and eye contact can provide valuable insights into their level of understanding and engagement (Rosenthal & Jacobson, 1968).
11. Managing classroom behaviour: Nonverbal cues can effectively manage and prevent disruptive behaviour in the classroom. Teachers can use eye contact, proximity, or gestures to redirect students' attention, establish boundaries, or reinforce behavioural expectations without disrupting the flow of the lesson (Marzano, Marzano, & Pickering, 2003).
12. Modifying pace and intensity: Teachers can use nonverbal cues to adjust the pace and intensity of their lessons to match students' needs and maintain engagement. For example, by varying vocal tone, pacing, and gestures, teachers can emphasize essential points, slow down or speed up instruction, and create a dynamic learning experience (Guerrero & Floyd, 2006).
13. Providing encouragement and motivation: Teachers can use nonverbal cues, such as thumbs-up, a smile, or a pat on the back, to motivate students and boost their confidence. These positive reinforcements can help students feel valued and more willing to participate in classroom activities (Hattie & Timperley, 2007).
14. Cultivating cultural sensitivity: Nonverbal communication can help teachers recognize and respect cultural differences among students, fostering an inclusive learning environment. By being aware of different cultural norms and expectations, teachers can adapt their nonverbal behaviours to communicate effectively with students from diverse backgrounds (Gudykunst & Kim, 2003).
15. Enhancing teacher-student relationships: Nonverbal cues, such as maintaining eye contact, using appropriate touch, or mirroring students' body language, can help teachers build rapport and establish positive relationships with their students, which contributes to students' academic success and well-being (Pianta, 1999).
16. Supporting students with special needs: Nonverbal communication can be particularly beneficial for students with special needs, such as those with hearing impairments, autism, or language processing difficulties. Teachers can use visual cues, gestures, and body language to convey information, reinforce verbal instructions, and enhance communication with these students (Marschark & Hauser, 2012).
17. Encouraging collaboration and teamwork: Teachers can use nonverbal cues to promote a collaborative atmosphere in the classroom. By arranging seating in circles or small groups and using cooperative gestures, such as open palms and inclusive body language, teachers can encourage students to work together, share ideas, and learn from one another (Johnson & Johnson, 2009).
18. Eliciting critical thinking and creativity: Nonverbal communication can stimulate students' critical thinking and creativity. Teachers can use visual aids, props, or dramatic gestures to present information in novel ways, challenging students to analyze, synthesize, and evaluate concepts from multiple perspectives (Paul & Elder, 2007).
19. Reducing anxiety and stress: Teachers can use nonverbal cues, such as a calm voice, relaxed posture, and reassuring facial expressions, to help reduce anxiety and stress in the classroom. This can create a more conducive learning environment and enhance students' emotional well-being (Gross & Thompson, 2007).
20. Fostering a sense of belonging: Nonverbal cues can help students feel welcomed and valued in the classroom. Teachers can use inclusive body language, attentive listening, and consistent eye contact to convey a sense of respect and validation, fostering a sense of belonging and promoting students' social and emotional development (Walton & Cohen, 2007).

Reference: 

Gesteland, R. (2012). Cross-cultural business behavior: A guide for global management. Copenhagen Business School Press.

Hall, J. A., Coats, E. J., & LeBeau, L. S. (2005). Nonverbal behavior and the vertical dimension of social relations: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 131(6), 898-924.

Riggio, R. E. (1992). Social interaction skills and nonverbal behavior. In R. S. Feldman (Ed.), Applications of nonverbal behavioral theories and research (pp. 3-30). Psychology Press.

Teven, J. J., & McCroskey, J. C. (1997). The relationship between perceived teacher caring and student learning. Communication Education, 46(1), 1-11.

Vrij, A. (2008). Detecting lies and deceit: Pitfalls and opportunities. John Wiley & Sons.

Witt, P. L., Wheeless, L. R., & Allen, M. (2004). A meta-analytical review of the relationship between teacher immediacy and student learning. Communication Monographs, 71(2), 184-207.

Bonwell, C. C., & Eison, J. A. (1991). Active learning: Creating excitement in the classroom. ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report No. 1. George Washington University.

Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia learning. Cambridge University Press.

Marzano, R. J., Marzano, J. S., & Pickering, D. J. (2003). Classroom management that works: Research-based strategies for every teacher. ASCD.

McCaslin, M., & Good, T. L. (1996). The informal curriculum. In D. C. Berliner & R. C. Calfee (Eds.), Handbook of educational psychology (pp. 622-670). Macmillan.

Rosenthal, R., & Jacobson, L. (1968). Pygmalion in the classroom. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.

Guerrero, L. K., & Floyd, K. (2006). Nonverbal communication in close relationships. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Gudykunst, W. B., & Kim, Y. Y. (2003). Communicating with strangers: An approach to intercultural communication. McGraw-Hill.

Hattie, J., & Timperley, H. (2007). The power of feedback. Review of Educational Research, 77(1), 81-112.

Marschark, M., & Hauser, P. C. (2012). How deaf children learn: What parents and teachers need to know. Oxford University Press.

Pianta, R. C. (1999). Enhancing relationships between children and teachers. American Psychological Association.

Gross, J. J., & Thompson, R. A. (2007). Emotion regulation: Conceptual foundations. In J. J. Gross (Ed.), Handbook of emotion regulation (pp. 3-24). Guilford Press.

Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (2009). An educational psychology success story: Social interdependence theory and cooperative learning. Educational Researcher, 38(5), 365-379.

Paul, R., & Elder, L. (2007). Critical thinking: The nature of critical thinking and its significance in a democratic society. In D. S. Dunn, J. S. Halonen, & R. A. Smith (Eds.), Teaching critical thinking in psychology: A handbook of best practices (pp. 3-14). Wiley-Blackwell.

Walton, G. M., & Cohen, G. L. (2007). A question of belonging: Race, social fit, and achievement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(1), 82-96.

Burleson, K. (1994). Comforting communication: A descriptive analysis of comforting strategies. Communication Research Reports, 11(1), 45-57.

Cuddy, A. J., Wilmuth, C. A., Yap, A. J., & Carney, D. R. (2010). The benefit of power posing before a high-stakes social evaluation. Harvard Business School Working Paper, 13(027).

DePaulo, B. M. (1996). Lying in everyday life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(5), 979-995.

Ekman, P. (1985). Telling lies: Clues to deceit in the marketplace, politics, and marriage. W.W. Norton & Company.

Ekman, P. (2003). Emotions revealed: Recognizing faces and feelings to improve communication and emotional life. Times Books.

Goffman, E. (1959). The presentation of self in everyday life. Doubleday.

Goffman, E. (1967). Interaction ritual: Essays on face-to-face behavior. Anchor Books.

Gosling, S. D., Ko, S. J., Mannarelli, T., & Morris, M. E. (2002). A room with a cue: Personality judgments based on offices and bedrooms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(3), 379-398.

Mehrabian, A. (1971). Silent messages. Wadsworth.

Moore, M. M. (1985). Nonverbal courtship patterns in women: Context and consequences. Ethology and Sociobiology, 6(4), 237-247.

Murphy, N. A. (2007). Appearing smart: The impression management of intelligence, person perception accuracy, and behavior in social interaction. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33(3), 325-339.

O'Sullivan, M. (2008). Home runs and humbugs: Comment on Bond and DePaulo (2008). Psychological Bulletin, 134(4), 493-497.

Rosenthal, R. (1966). Experimenter effects in behavioral research. Appleton-Century-Crofts.

Vrij, A. (2008). Detecting lies and deceit: Pitfalls and opportunities. John Wiley & Sons.